New Light on Early Art Forms of the Indian Subcontinent

The changing styles of religious symbolism in art and architecture from the Indian Subcontinent and its peoples are evident throughout the centuries, which can date back to the third millennium B.C. These varying sculptures intend to illustrate the basic purpose of Indian art.

The art forms serve not so much as a habitation for the Gods, but elicit a metaphysical state of mind in the worshipper.Â The Jain, Hindu, and Buddhist traditions produced tangentially great individual works of art, and the objective was to capture the essence and power of the deity, enabling the worshipper to become one with it.

Shiva, Buddha, and other representations of the divine are highlighted, and this exhibit that encompasses rare terracotta sculptures excavated from Chandraketugarh, near the mouth of the Ganges River in Bengal.Â Familiar heads of the Jain and Bodhisattva can be admired, as well as the profound manifestation of spiritual icons with Greek Hellenistic styles.

These works of art are inspired by the Shilpa Shastras, textbooks of Hindu craftsmanship â€“ the MahÄbhÄrata and the RÄmÄyana, describe manual arts that formulate to reach beyond the human form and endow the image with the magical powers of symbolism.

Works in Exhibition

Head of Bodhisattva

Gandhara region
limestone
ca. early 3rd century A.D.

In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is interpreted as an enlightened existence (bodhi) or an enlightened being (sattva), who has made the vow to achieve enlightenment. This piece has been cast from a mold evidenced by the sharpness and dryness in the planes of better preserved examples of this type; however, the mouth and soft rounded contours of the face were subsequently modeled free-hand. There is a band around the head as the hair is arranged in horizontal wavy lines. Interestingly, many heads have survived, but most bodies were made with mud and an outer layer of gypsum or stucco, making it more common for the lower body of Bodhisattvas to have disappeared over time.
Head of a Jain

Mathura region
Sikri sandstone
ca. 275 A.D.

This head of a Jain with its protruding usnisa is covered by rows of snail shell curls (daksinavatra kuncita kesa), reflecting a Gandharan influence in sculptural application. It is said that on these pieces hair should curl to the right, turning clockwise in order to be indicative to the path of the sunâ€•a symbol of eternity, signifying no beginning or end. The prominent ears with distended earlobes translate as an all-knowing or all-hearing being; nevertheless, they were not placed with anatomical accuracy, the entire face being composed in a stylized technique rather than in an organic, soft manner. Between the eyebrows, whose ideal shape was that of the arc of a bow, there is the indication of a circle, i.e. the urna, another symbol of a great Jain being.

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Head of a Horse

Mathura
Red sandstone
ca. 2nd century A.D.

The horse, once considered an animal of luxury, was reserved chiefly to the Ksatriyas, i.e., the warrior class. Agricultural and transportation needs were sometimes fulfilled by bullocks and other animals for the masses. The head of a horse, also known as haya, was considered sacred because it signified Jnana meaning knowledge. This head of a horse was typical for craftsmen to make during the time in conceptual and minimal execution, reflecting a general move away from surface ornamentation in sculpture in the region of Mathura by the 2nd century A.D.

The Aryan tribes were originally ruled by chiefs (rajas) whose principal role was that of leader in wartime but who were responsible to tribal councils (sabha or samiti). There was a head priest (purohita) and class divisions in the tribal organization. In the course of time the tribes merged and small kingdoms were formed, but the rulerâ€™s authority was still proscribed by tradition and public opinion. The original Aryan homeland in the Panjab.
Head of Yaksha

Banaras-Sarnath
Chunar Sandstone
2nd century B.C

This piece is executed in what is said to be an expanding breath or prana (life force) style. Whereas, the face suggests a lack of muscular or skeletal structure and is dominated by broad, anthropomorphic planes. A crisscross ridge outlines almond-shaped eyes, adding prominence to them. The head of a Yaksa was intended to project a feeling of ominousness, instilling both fear and affection on the part of the worshiper. As part of the appeasing process, in the hope of averting disasters and bringing prosperity and well-being, offerings of food and flowers, a basic part of Indian ritual worship, were made to these figures. Each village had its’ Yaksa and a festival called Yakkha Maha usually took place each year. (Diana paraphrased from p. 12).
Garuda (The King of Birds)

Mathura region
Red sandstone
1st century B.C.

The great eagle Garuda is associated with Vasudeva, one of Vishnu’s early forms, later becoming Vishnu’s vehicle. Garuda, â€˜The King of Birds,â€™ son of Kasyapa and Vinata, was hatched from an egg laid by Vinata, and conveys features of an eagle such as in the hands. In this 1st century B.C. fragment from Mathura all human features are not apparent as the hands are depicted as large claws. Extending as if wings, there is a diamond like feather pattern flaring out from the sides of the body extenuating the enigmatic presence of a figurative-bird creature. (Diana paraphrased from p. 49).
Yakshi Figure

Gandhara region
Grey schist stone
ca. 2nd century A.D.

A yaksi is a female earth spirit, accepted as a symbol of fertility by the Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain faiths. She is usually portrayed as a wide- hipped, voluptuous woman, who can cause a tree to bear fruit simply by touching it with her foot. The figure portrayed here is cleverly incorporated into the form of a column, the capital of which takes the form of a leafy tree. Her upper hand grasps a branch of the tree, a traditional gesture in these sculptures. The yaksiâ€™s three-bend pose (tribanga), bending at her neck, waist, and hips, is a stance that suggests a sensuous liveliness and maternal energy. This representation also shows the figure revealing an abundantly endowed female body that symbolizes the fertility of the earth. Sculptures of yaksi are often seen in elaborate architectural motifs on the facÌ§ades of temples and stupas.
Yakshi Figure

Mathura region
Red sandstone
ca. 2nd century A.D.

This architectural fragment depicts the top half a Yaksi figure surrounded by a once full circle of lotus leaves. To broaden their appeal, these nature spirits as well as Aryan Vedic traditional gods and goddesses were incorporated into developing Indian religions such as Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism. In addition to symbolizing fertility and a spirit of the earth, the Yaksi’s adaptive role was that of a guardian (lokapala) of the quarters they surrounded.
Profile of a Winged Mythical Beast (fragment from a pillar)

Nagarjunakonda
limestone
3rd century A.D.

p. 121. A corner fragment of a pillar from Nagarjunakonda (Pl.7d) is about the same date as the preceding piece. A winged mythical beast in profile decorates both sides of this thoroughly cleaned fragment, which shows the lovely pale green color of the limestone. One is that of a lion, the other a ram, these fantastic creatures being employed as guardians of religious faith, the lion and ram being strong and aggressive in nature. The wings indicate that they could also conquer the air, their elevated position suggesting sovereignty of the aerial regions. The crouching lion is almost docile and canine- like in appearance. The jowl lacks whiskers and the face is relaxed and less heraldic in appearance. The flowing mane is indicated by incised lines, as are the feathers on his wings. The powerful forelegs, likewise prominently displayed, lend an overall effect that is more naturalistic (as is the more damaged ram) than similar examples in this collection. Half- lotuses form the pillar’s cap, one in the more usual petal natural form, the other in a more stylized, straight-lined petal pattern. There is a zigzag border–both sides ended by a
Squatting Figure, Surya

Mathura
Red sandstone
2nd century A.D.

This Surya figure is wearing a Scythian costume, which in its entirety, comprises a long tunic, a thick riding coat held together by a rosette clasp, a conical cap, trousers and thick boots, known as Northern dress (Udichya-vesa). In this example, the coatsâ€™ raised border has a simple linear design in a narrow placement down the center of the torso. In more complete representations, Surya is in the guise of a Kusana, the ruler who holds in his left hand a sword or mace (in this example a sceptre), and in his right hand a cluster of lotuses. (Diana paraphrased from page p. 116).
Atlas, Hellenistic Influenced Gandharan Sculpture

Sirkap, Taxila, Pakistan
Gypsum lime stucco
early 1st century A.D.

Evidence of Hellenistic influence in Gandharan sculpture is shown here in this exquisite statue from Sirkap, Taxila, Pakistan, which could easily pass as being Greek in workmanship. The fact that stucco allows for more freedom of expression than stone, as illustrated by the radiating dynamic energy displayed in this figure depicting Atlas derived from Greek prototypes, which suggest a great interchnage occurring prior to the Kusana era between the Roman Empire and the East. Atlas was the mythical Greek titan condemned by Zeus to hold up the sky. Atlantes are designated in Indian Art as earth-gnomes or Guhyas, Yaksa supporters of the flying palace of their ruler Kubera. The vigorous skillfully modeled figure displays great strength, his back and left arm perhaps supporting the tier of a stupa plinth. He is depicted with prominent brows, deeply set eyes, thick flat nose, wide open mouth, shaggy hair and full beard in wavy locks, which in every way reflect the Greco-Roman style.
Head of Jain Tirthankara

Mathura region
Red sandstone
2nd century A.D.

This head of a Jain Tirthankara in dark red sandstone spotted with buff colored blotches was purportedly painted after its carving. The head is a study of interlocking, curved planes; the eyes wide open, heavily lidded with pronounced protrusion; the nose, short but full, adding to the roundness of the face. The mouth shows an upper lip slightly upturned in a smile. The eyebrows are cut as steep sideward curves into the forehead, echoing the soft curve of the cheeks and jowl lending the face unity and cohesiveness.

The basic rules of the Jain faith, which is fundamentally non-theistic, are non-violence, true speech, no stealing and no acquisitiveness. According to tradition, there were twenty-four Tirthankaras (â€˜Finders of the Fordâ€™) of the Jain faith, who by their respect for the life of all creatures (ahimsa or harmlessness) and their great austerities, achieved final emancipation from the cycle of transmigration, the individual souls being united with the Absolute.
[this could be a separate label identifying the difference between Jain and Buddha heads]. The Jain population of Mathura outnumbered
Durga Mahisasuramardini (Mother goddess)

Mathura region
Sikri sandstone
1st century A.D.

A consort of Siva in her terrible form, this representation is an iconographic type of Durga, (she who is difficult â€˜durâ€™ to go against â€˜gaâ€™). She is a goddess of tribal descent; whereas, many images of Durga- Mahisasuramardini, the Devi as slayer of Mahisasura, the Buffalo demon, were found at the bottom of a well in Mathura, once a major Hindu religious and artistic center. Indian mythology is rank with battles between the gods and demons and Durga Mahisasuramardini is often depicted battling or slaying demons, particularly Mahishasura the buffalo demon. Her triumph as slayer of the buffalo demon is a central episode here, which derives from the scripture, Devi Mahatmya. (paraphrased from p. 108 and wikipedia).
Buddha's Departure from Princely Life

Gandhara region
Schist stone
Late 1st century A.D. date (confirm wi???

An early example of an often portrayed event in Buddhaâ€™s life, this frieze depicts the sadness of Buddha’s departure from his princely life and family to live as an ascetic. Graphically portrayed through the facial expressions of the participants, this scene combines the naturalness of the Roman aesthetic with Indian iconography to create a scene of dramatic and emotional impact.

Buddhaâ€™s princely status is renounced here, as he gives his jewels to his loyal groom Chandaka to be placed in a saddlebag. Chandaka and other attendant figures are conveyed by devotional demeanors. They are wearing marks of rank such as elaborate headdresses, turbans, necklaces, bracelets and earrings. Interestingly, all of the figures have mustaches. Buddhaâ€™s horse, Kanthakashows cloth or leather saddle held in place by bands, the breast band decorated with a round boss, his head adorned with a fly-whisk crest, kneels on his forelegs to touch his masterâ€™s feet in a touching gesture of farewell.

Buddhaâ€™s divine guardian, Vajrapani, is shown . . .
Head of Bodhisattva

Mathura region
Red sandstone
ca. 1st century A.D.

This head of a bodhisattva, made from Red sandstone, was likely painted after its initial carving. It is a superb example and study of interlocking, curved planes that give the illusion as if put together by means of a layered technique. The eyes show a heavy slant and the hair is tied up with a chignon. The nose is full, adding to the roundness of the face. The mouth in this example conveys lips upturned in a smile which symbolizes that this Bodhisattva is a content, enlightened being.
Bodhi Tree and the Mahabodhi Temple (from the Bharhut stupa)

Mathura region
Sandstone
2nd century B.C.

The Bodhi tree, a large pipal tree with heart- shaped pointed leaves under which Buddha Sakyamuni in his thirty-fifth year gained his enlightenment (sambodhi), was situated on the outskirts of Gaya, part of the kingdom of Magadha. The Bodhi tree itself, according to Coomaraswamy, is analogically the â€˜Great Awakening,â€™ not merely a signpost or symbol of the place where the â€˜Awakeningâ€™ was accomplished.

The tree itself was surrounded by the Mahabodhi temple with chaitya windows supported by pillars. Numerous reliefs depict this temple but one of the best knowns is from the Bharhut stupa. (Paraphrased from p. 59).
Culture Medium Ye Insurance Value Photo Yaksha Figure [Najakanda --confirm this is a name of priest]

Southern India
Sandstone
ca. late 3rd century early 4th century

The expression shown by this Yaksha is indeed one with intense focus, perhaps plotting a malice endeavor. In general, the yaksÌ£ha is known for having a dual personality. On the one hand, a yaksÌ£ha may be an inoffensive nature-fairy, associated with woods and mountains. But there is also a darker version, which is a kind of ghost (bhuta) that haunts the wilderness and waylays and devours travelers, similar to the raksÌ£asas.
Buddha Torso

Mathura region
Red sandstone
ca. 275 A.D.

A Buddha torso, head and feet missing, is conceived frontally, standing feet apart in samapada position. A body clinging sharp- edged grooved monastic robe covering practically the entire body reflects a now strong Gandharan influence in Mathura, which occurred during the reign of Vasudeva I. (ca. 128-176 A.D.). The arrangements of the drapery pleats in this example differs from those found in Gandharan Buddha standing figures of similar date in that the loops or ridges fall in a simple geometric pattern from the figure’s left shoulder and upper arm. The undergarment (antaravasaka) appearing above the calves also falls in a geometric pattern, rather than Buddha’s clothing having a life of its own with a number of complex, rhythmic, thickly grooved drapery components which follow the salient contours of his body.

The torso has the Mathura powerful build, squat body and often large awkward hands, the missing right hand undoubtedly raised in the abhaya mudra. The damaged left hand, an auspicious circular design barely visible on its palm, holds the hem of his monastic robe.
Sucht Panel (from a Buddhist Vedika Stupa)

Mathura region
Red sandstone
latter half of the 1st century B.C.

On one side appears the goddess Laksmi (the word Laksmi meaning â€˜mark or signâ€™) standing upon the pericap of a lotus flower (padma- sthita), holding in her left hand above her navel, a blossom, her attribute (lila-kamala). Two lotus rhizones flank the goddess (kamalalaya) having lotus leaves, buds and an open flower on top with their pericaps supporting elephants who are anointing the goddess with water from two inverted jars belonging to the Vedic god Varuna, a sky deity described in late verses added to the Rg-Veda, as being her husband, – but Laksmi is also associated with many different male deities. Four attendant female figures alongside Laksmi, stand stiffly in different attitudes, as we are still in a rudimentary style of stone carving. Three rosettes, signs of good fortune, complete this boxed in frieze where the goddess, lustrated by two elephants, is known
Yakshi Torso

Mathura region
Red sandstone
1st century A.D.

Great skill and ability of the Mathura Kusana sculptor in portraying the feminine form is apparent in this Yakshi torso carved fully in the round from red sandstone. There is an emphasis on the flowing planes; whereas, greater anatomical accuracy is evident in the representation of the stomach muscles with a deep navel, emphasizing the illusion of a fleshy form. Moreover, it can be said that the form is always reached by a process of synthesis and abstraction, rather than by observation and is always in the last analysis a memory image.

This figure gives an impression of great solidity and volume concealed within gently rounded contours. At the same time, the figure conveys a great sense of strength and power in its simplicity partly due to the sculptor making his statement without resorting to excessive ornamentation or emphasis on details.
Yakshis, Gaurdian Figure

East India (Ganges Delta)
Wood
ca. first century B.C.

This rare wooden sculpture was excavated at Chandaketurgarh in the Ganges delta in eastern India and preserved over centuries due to its high water table and the favorable preservation composition of its soil. It frames a tall female figure of a Yakshi with her downward, expressionless face bent to the right, the knee of her left leg also bent in contrapposto. (This rudimentary contrapposto foreshadows the strong contrapposto of sculpture succeeding centuries).

The Yakshiâ€™s long hair is parted in the center and held in place with a jeweled band, gathered into a large bun to the left of her head. An unusual feature is her prominent two part earrings, one in circular form, the other tapering downward into a long pendant form. A narrow band below it is holding in place her transparent dhoti, gathered on her left hip (now broken away) with jeweled tassels suspended from this band extending down her upper leg. The Yakshiâ€™s left arm extends along her torso, her right hand holding the end of a tapering earring. One might suppose the Yakshi is holding the end of a yak-tail fly-whisk, or cauri, as in other Yakshi