Through The Eyes Of Our Ancestors

The patchwork cloth mask incorporates information about the identity of this ensemble. To create it, worn country cloth was stitched together, and augmented by fur and the hornbill beak. Braided raffia forms the beard of a male character. Bound tufts of monkey fur and the hornbill beak symbolize creatures with specific attributes. In Dan mythology, the hornbill was created by God to fetch palm nuts, providing sustenance to humans. Monkey is a creature of the wild, resourceful but unpredictable. The indigo blue and white striped country cloth has a circular sacrificial offering spot at center front. That circular pattern can be seen on other Poro masks and costumes in this exhibition.

The combination of facial features in this mask refers to both humans and animals. It has an elongated, angular face and nose, an articulated jaw once covered with monkey fur, and metal-rimmed eyes. Forged, curled iron pegs atop the head may refer to the strength of Poro. According to an oral account, mothers of initiates placed money in the mouth of the mask to support their boys in bush camp. A bag placed in the mouth of the mask received the contributions, so that the spirit appeared to eat the money. The Poro Society controlled male initiation and also solicited food from villagers to support their initiates.

Similar in type to the previous combination, this ensemble includes an over-garment made of leopard and goat skin and fur arranged in complex patterns. Four circles on the costume are composed of cowries on red textile. The mask has a hinged mouth, indicating that it emitted sounds described as “bestial croaks, growls or twitters” (The Arts of the Dan in West Africa: 8). The Kpelle in Liberia and related Guerze in Guinea were organized into powerful Poro Societies that acted as shadow governments, ruling the chiefdoms in which they were found.

Dan/Kpelle/Mau, Liberia/Ivory Coast
Wood, metal, raffia, feathers, snake skin. nd
Unknown

Among the Dan, some masks were ‘dreamed’ by their future owners, who then commissioned carvers and costume-makers to render the dreamed image as accurately as possible. Other masks represented cultural or mythological characters. This mask belongs to a type found among many related cultures (Dan, Mano, Mau) in Ivory Coast and Liberia. It combines human features with the beak of a hornbill, the spiritual precursor of humans that brought knowledge of cultivation, the use of palm nuts and oil. When the hornbill appears, the image suggests a good outcome. In performance, the masquerader might mime the movements and sounds of a bird. Deep-set round eyes enhanced the dancer’s vision.

Called Deangle or Gaa Wree Wre this mask could serve different functions. Among the Dan, this was the mask type that came out from the circumcision camp into a village to ask for food. In other circumstances this mask type could serve as a justice mask, sitting to hear cases. Multiple material additions attest to the importance of this spirit. Each of the items had to be purchased, the mask commissioned, and the ensemble created to embody certain characteristics. The black mask has soft, feminine features, accented by a white band across the eyes, imitating cosmetics worn by women. White cowries and red beads form the rolled headband, and a black-white- red color scheme is echoed in the colors of her shawl. The brown undergarment is dyed cotton, woven in strips and sewn together. A raffia skirt concealed the dancer, and the tall, pointed cap adds height. The considerable cost of such a costume was usually shared by members of the society to which it belonged.

The monkey mask represents a bush entity. It is equipped with an articulated jaw, indicating that it was a speaking spirit. The red head band signifies volatility, while the cowries denote wealth. Among the Dan, Kaogle, the monkey masquerader, acted as an entertainer, stirring up the crowd with its erratic behavior. It carried a hooked stick with which it intimidated onlookers. However, this mask apparently advanced in rank. It was released during the Liberian war, at which time it was presented to the current collector as a Gle Wa or judgment mask. These were powerful masked entities, controlled by the Go Society, that were able to decide the fate of defendants in legal cases. If a mask performed admirably over the years, it could advance in rank, to achieve higher station, as apparently happened with this mask. When that happened, the masquerader’s dance steps became more restrained to fit this new role.

This mask incorporates feminine features in the oval face and slit eyes, though human hair replicates an elder’s beard. The open mouth of this mask, and the attached bells, denote its ability to create music. Within public celebrations, this masker acts to commemorate local heroes and to create fables relating to local oral history. To sing, the dancer pushes the mask onto his forehead, while his face is still hidden behind the costume. This masker occupies a fairly high position in the Gla or masking society. Cowries add white coloration of the spirit world and allude to wealth (Masks of the We in Western Côte d’Ivoire).

This mask incorporates a number of pigments and materials to create an unusual character. The face has been colored with black dye, and accented with an over-layer of white, red, and a vivid blue color sometimes seen on Grebo masks. Vertical blue and white forehead stripes recreate former tattoo marks. Blue and white fabrics form a conical head cover topped with black and white feathers. The mask also shares some characteristics with Zro Gla (Beggar masks) worn by junior initiates in Gla, the WeÌ€ masking society. The mask has feminine features—slit eyes, oval face, and white teeth—but also wears a beard. Zro Gla is an entertainment mask. In performance, the dancer mimics a woman’s step, amusing the crowd and then holding out his hand to receive gifts (Masks of the We in Western CoÌ‚te d’lvoire).

This masterful carving is triangular in shape, with a broad forehead showing a male scarification mark from forehead to brow line, slit eyes and an articulated lower jaw. The mask represents monkey (Kaogle) one of the main characters in Dan masquerades. The mobile jaw means that this spirit had a ‘speaking’ role. His costume would have been a thick raffia shroud that hid the dancer’s body. This character’s actions are erratic and wild, as befits a bush spirit. He carried a hooked stick with which he thrashed young men, challenging them to dance aggressively. In so doing, he clears the dance circle in preparation for other masqueraders to follow. The red pigment across the eyes reinforces his aggressive nature.

Sierra Leone and Liberia. This association controls initiation and social advancement among women. Unique among African cultures, women here commission masks and perform with them during community celebrations. Masks and costumes are typically black, though a white headwrap is sometimes added to the coiffure during performance. This mask shows attributes consistent with ideal female beauty. The eyes are downcast, the coiffure is beautifully made, and the neck rings are accented. The ensemble is called Sowei, but each mask also has a name, sometimes that of a male ancestor, sometimes a term indicating personal characteristics of the dancer.

Woven cotton cloth was created by Asante weavers for centuries, long predating Kente cloth. The origin of Kente as a specific kind of cloth began with the advent of imported silk, brought in by European traders in the early 1700’s. Their silk yard goods were unraveled, and the brilliantly colored threads were woven into the cotton. Complex patterns were created as time went on, each of which became known by a name derived from one of a variety of sources: famous chiefs, queen mothers, plants, historical events, and proverbs. Colors also acquired symbolic associations: yellow with royalty and wealth; blue with peace and love; red with sacrifice and spirituality; black with maturity and spiritual energy. The cloth has been associated with royalty who controlled its use and distribution. Men wear the cloth over the left shoulder, while women wear shorter lengths as skirts (The Asante: 153). According to Asante legend the origin of weaving came through observation of the spider and first weaver, Ananse. This textile is draped over an asipim chair once used by Asante royalty.

Egungun performances honor ancestors with drumming, dance, and elaborate costumes that reflect well upon a lineage and its deceased ancestors. An extended family will band together to afford such a display, since each element must be separately purchased. A headpiece is commissioned, colorful fabrics are purchased from various sources, a netting veil made, cowries and accoutrements bought, and the whole thing assembled to accommodate a dancer’s body. Three-headed Egungun carry complex meanings. The larger head at the center is flanked by two smaller heads, perhaps recognizing the departed’s identity as iya ibeji (mother of twins). The axe may refer to Sango, protector of twins, and the small, attached bow string with cowries relates to Osoosi, deity of the hunt. Egungun and Ibeji are related conceptually, as both acknowledge origins in the Colobus monkey (Bolaji Campbell, pc 10/28/10).

The central head of this Egungun is female, as indicated by the coiffure. The 10 two small flanking heads wear caps associated with men. This headpiece may portray an ancestral mother of twin boys, or it may allude to Iya Agan, female chief of an Egungun society. Within Egungun societies, authority positions are accorded to titled elders, both men and women. Both could own Egungun masquerades. According to Yoruba mythology, the first Egungun masquerader was half monkey, half human. In recognition of its origin, Egungun maskers speak in guttural, varied tones imitating the monkey. The red color of the cloth costume replicates the color of its fur (Henry Drewal, pc 10/23/10).

A successful Egungun ensemble incorporates a lavish display, with layer upon layer of imported cloth sewn into lobes (traditionally 16 in number) with serrated edges symbolizing protection. The strips and patterns rise and swirl with the movements of the dancer. He sees through crochet netting at face level, and his face is framed in cowries denoting wealth. The mask is conceived and maintained by lineage members who purchase accoutrements, invent praise songs and practice dance movements that accentuate the visual splendor of the costume. According to Henry Drewal, the ensemble and whirling dance embodies the saying ayé l’ajò, òrun nilé, meaning ‘life is a journey, the afterlife is home’ (Beads, Body and Soul: 270).

This maternity figure was once seated within a shrine to which women came hoping to conceive or to heal an ill child. The body position of this figure is strong, upright and nurturing. Her coiffure is duplicated in that of the child that she protects on her lap. The hands of mother and daughter meet on the head of a snake that the mother holds. Both the snake and the white over-color of the figure identify this as a water spirit, whose attributes are fertility and healing. The snake, especially the python, is sacred to many Nigerian peoples, and its killing is prohibited. In a related manner, a snake was believed to endure forever, as it shed its skin but lived on. Thus the messages embedded in this maternity figure speak of fecundity and long life.

Epa masks, when not in use, resided in shrines. They were brought out to perform only at post-funeral rites of men known for their singular achievements in life. The masquerader who wore an Epa mask had to be athletic and agile, as his feats included leaps and jumps to express the extraordinary character of this spirit. The doubled or janus face means that the spirit is able to see past and future, this life and the next. Large eyes indicate spiritual power. Atop the mask are several figures, dominated by a female with a baby on her back, signifying continuity. Her coiffure was said by William Fagg to replicate a Yoruba hairstyle of the 19th century, according to the collector, Jim Wilson. Two out of a trio of small figures at the back survive. Both are attendants: one holds a bowl on the head, the other holds a calabash.

Hunters’ tunics were worn on occasion by local rulers as ritual garments. This one incorporates multiple protective devices to symbolically shield the wearer from harm in hunting or war. Ornate brass amulet holders fastened to the front of this tunic may once have enclosed Koranic verse, solicited from an Imam for protection. The beaded crocodile alludes to a powerful devourer of prey. Horns and fur call upon the power and cunning of wild animals. The gun replicates those used and sold by colonial powers. Cowries are associated with Sango, god of thunder and Osoosi, god of the hunt.

Calabash masks are worn by Afikpo male initiates of all ages, from 5 to 20. They sometimes appear in public, in procession where hierarchy is expressed by the height of the mask. The largest of these, worn by ranking initiation officials, could be over 20 feet tall. This mask is about 5 feet in height, so perhaps belonged to a male society member in the mid-range of the hierarchy. The face-cover is an oval half-calabash with three sets of pierced eye slits. Cane and cord were attached to create the superstructure. Pigment remnants include kaolin, red and yellow ocher and black. Along with this mask, initiates wore body-coverings consisting of long fiber strips.

The Niger River connects the Igala kingdom to many other Nigerian peoples, and cultural influences have long moved back and forth along that route. The town of Idah is central to the kingdom and site of the royal house, within which several royal masks are kept by the Ata, or king, to symbolize his power. Each mask plays a different role, executing its own steps during masquerade performance. Similar masks are associated with ancestry, and are said to bring forth the spirits of the dead. The facial striations characteristic of Igala masks evoke those on Ife sculpture. This mask also has raised keloids under the eyes. At each side of the face, keloids extend from forehead to cheek, and are accented with kaolin as are the eyelids and upper lip. Ancestor masks commonly appear at the annual yam harvest. Masks very similar to this one are in collections at the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Des Moines Art Center (The Arts of the Benue to the Roots of Tradition)

These masks display similar faces, each with triple tattoo marks reflecting scarification once borne by every Yoruba adult. Their wide, staring eyes see the spirit or are possessed by it. The symmetry of each face reflects balance, and the sealed lips are calm and serious. White color alludes to ancestors, and also to iwa (inner character). Gelede masks honor the ancestral role of women as bearers of life and the source of wisdom. However, only one of these masks portrays a woman. She has a female coiffure surmounted by a four-legged animal with a curled tail. The other mask shows a bearded male wearing a Muslim cap surrounded by a ring containing squared amulets. On each of the side panels is a crescent moon with a roundel and flower. Atop his head stands a lion. These signs all carry meanings related to the religious strength of this honored ancestor.

In a Bamum masquerade group, the position of leader is occupied by a male mask, usually portrayed with a crested head and a beard. His woven raffia tunic is inset with human hair. Amadou Njoya has noted that this hair is gathered from all the members of the Society to which the mask belongs, thus representing all of them in one ensemble (A Cameroon World: 37). This male mask always takes first position in any processional. During performance he holds a weapon, a sword, knife or spear, and he paces the masquerade for the other dancers. At a funeral, this mask alone may dance on the grave of the deceased, leading him into the next world (Cameroon Art and Kings: 91).

The second position in Bamum masquerade processionals is taken by the female mask, Ngoin, said to be the wife of the male leader Kam. She is powerful in her own right. She is shown here with a serene face and close- fitting coiffure. Her ensemble may consist of indigo dyed cloth or an appliquéd fabric garment as in this case. During performance, she holds dance whisks in either hand. Her step is contained and graceful. Onlookers may offer gifts or money to her by placing it on the ground as she comes past. Both Ngoin and her male counterpart, Kam, appear at entitlement ceremonies, annual festivals and celebrations honoring the dead.

Kuosi is an elite male Society within the Grassfields region of Cameroon. They reinforce the dominant hierarchy, admitting only nobility and important men. Their regalia consist of a beaded cloth mask with a long trunk and large ears, which symbolically incorporates the strength of the elephant,
and a large red parrot-feather headdress, the color alluding to royalty. Combined with an indigo-dyed display cloth robe, the costume presents an image of wealth and advantage. Costumed Kuosi members are present at funerals and community celebrations. They have a stake in and are influential in protecting royal power.

This drum was found in a Bamenda palace around 1998. It was probably made in the 1940’s or ‘50’s, perhaps by the carver Fonbeoom who worked in the area of Big Babanki. The carving of the woman incorporates a hair style popular in the early part of the twentieth century. She presents her male child to the assembled audience. Multiple heads may allude to the people, and the large head to the presiding king. The drum may have been carved to celebrate the birth of a royal child, and played at naming ceremonies. The drum was also played during Njang celebrations and at the Palace Dance during several years of performance. After many years of use, it was stored in the king’s palace (Amadou Njoya, pc).

Oku is one of a number of Bamileke kingdoms in northwestern Cameroon. This N’Kem mask appeared during commemorative celebrations for deceased members of a secret society in Oku. The extended jowls signify age and dignity. The open headdress is composed of six lizards whose tails meet at the top. The lizard was believed to inhabit two worlds, above and below ground. By extension, its image is symbolic of the connection between those currently living and their ancestors in the other world. This mask surmounts a cloth costume embroidered with inverted gongs, representing the double gong emblem of the Kwifoyn Society, with whom the king has a special relationship. The dance whisk is surmounted by a beaded elephant, calling upon the power implicit in that animal (Amadou Njoya, pc).

Banjoun, in the Bamileke region of the western Grassfields, was the origin of these royal garments. The princess’ tunic is beaded in bold turquoise and white diamonds. The sleeves repeat the same colors in a four-leaved floral pattern. The prince’s tunic has a central radiating diamond pattern in blue, yellow, black and red beads, surrounded by indigo-dyed display color appears in both garments, in the central panel and lower border of the male tunic, and in the lower row of diamonds on that of the female. This display attire would have been worn during festivals. (Amadou Njoya, pc).

Banjoun, in the Bamileke region of the western Grassfields, was the origin of these royal garments. The princess’ tunic is beaded in bold turquoise and white diamonds. The sleeves repeat the same colors in a four-leaved floral pattern. The prince’s tunic has a central radiating diamond pattern in blue, yellow, black and red beads, surrounded by indigo-dyed display color appears in both garments, in the central panel and lower border of the male tunic, and in the lower row of diamonds on that of the female. This display attire would have been worn during festivals. (Amadou Njoya, pc).

This male figure was carved in remembrance of an ancestral king from Oku in the Bamileke region of Cameroon. Shown as an upright figure with a wide stance and regal bearing, wide eyes and closed mouth, the carving embodies qualities associated with royalty. With both hands, he holds a prestige staff covered at top and bottom with cowries, symbolic of wealth and status. The figure is shown wearing a double-lobed prestige cap. The chevron beads in his necklace would have been worn only by a person of rank. This figure would have been kept in the royal palace and could be brought out to stand near the current monarch as he received visitors. It was a guardian and attendant to the king, and a sign of his legitimacy in succession to the throne (Amadou Njoya, pc).

This subtle carving of a bearded male has slit eyes and an open mouth with inset metal teeth. The coiffure is formed of braided raffia, arranged in thick, layered loops over a cane armature. The thick raffia ruff is attached to rim holes in the mask. It most resembles helmet masks of the southern Suku. In that area, masks like this one were created and performed to remind the community of departed elders, especially those who had been important leaders within the matrilineal society. This mask could also function in other ways for the benefit of the community, identifying and deflecting those with malicious intent, ensuring a successful hunt, or healing the sick. The power of the mask was such that it supported the beliefs and morals of society (Art of the Yaka and Suku).

The Songye masking society, bwadi bwa kifwebe, controlled the carving and use of male and female masks. Both were used within the society, but for different purposes. Male masks, characterized by a high sagittal crest, danced aggressively, sometimes breathing fire. This is a female mask, as indicated by the flat crest. Her role is to sniff out witches and evildoers. She also fosters continuity through her powers of procreation. In both aspects, she is associated with night. Her dance steps are restrained and more confined than those of the male. This mask has an hourglass shape with a thick raffia attachment. Its box-like lips, nose, eye slits, and flat crest are colored brown-black, probably with plant dye. Linear incisions are pigmented with kaolin (Songye Masks and Figure Sculpture).

This calabash probably originated in the Cameroon village of Kambé, near the Keaka of Nigeria. It once belonged to a diviner, who used it to help clients find the sources of problems and redress grievances. Four carved figures face the cardinal points, calling upon the powers that reside in each direction. The attached bones suggest sacrificial offerings. In use, the diviner removed the stopper, freeing the power inside the calabash to rectify the problem and to caution wrongdoers. “Four is the fetishman’s number for helping people. A person comes from this direction and he helps that one, someone comes from there and he helps that one. People come from each direction and he helps them” (Amadou Njoya, pc; Two, Three, Four: Multiples in African Art: 34).